14 results
1 - Introduction
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 1-11
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Summary
Vehicular networking, the exchange of information in the car and between cars, has been on the mind of researchers since at least the often-cited 1939 New York World's Fair. Here, in its Futurama exhibit, General Motors revealed utopian visions of what highways and cities might look like twenty years later. In fact, many of the visions of intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) showcased there, as well as in the exhibit designer's 1940 book Magic Motorways (Bel Geddes 1940), such as that “car-to-car radio hook-up might be used to advise a driver nearing an intersection of the approach of another car or even to maintain control of speed and spacing of cars in the same traffic lane”, are still being pursued today. Modern vehicles collect huge amounts of information from on-board sensors, and this information is made available to the in-car network and ready for sharing with other cars – not just for the described visions of intersection assistance systems and platooning, i.e., road-train applications, but also for a whole wealth of new applications. Today, with in-car networks merging into networks of cars, these early visions seem closer to reality than ever.
But why did we have to wait this long?
Hugely many research projects have been undertaken since Magic Motorways was written, all of which tried to make visions of ITS a reality (Jurgen 1991). Among the most notable of research initiatives were the Japanese CACS, US ERGS, and European ALI projects for urban route guidance in the late 1960s to late 1970s, the European Prometheus project for autonomous driving (1986–1995), and the US PATH project for cooperative driving (1986–1992). Evidently, the majority of these initiatives led to working prototypes and successful field operational tests; yet, commercial success failed to match the projects' promises.
A possible explanation is given by Chen & Ervin (1990): early approaches were simply too visionary for their time, commonly focusing on infrastructure-less solutions, which could not be supported by current technology. The 1980s then saw a shift of attention from the more long-term goals of complete highway automation to nearer-term goals such as driver-advisory functions.
Frontmatter
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp i-iv
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2 - Intra-vehicle communication
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 12-37
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Summary
Electronics are playing an ever-increasing role in today's vehicles. They have gone from humble beginnings in the 1970s that saw features like electronic fuel injection and power door locks become commonplace or the mass-market introduction of anti-lock braking systems in the 1980s to today's 3 km of wiring and 50 kg of electrical systems operating in a typical modern car. With electrical systems contributing to at least one third of today's breakdowns, it is clear that modern cars just could not be driven without electronics.
The use cases that most readily come to mind might be engine control, or more recent advances in chassis electrification such as an anti-lock braking system (ABS) or an electronic stability program (ESP), maybe also modern infotainment systems like DVD players streaming video to the rear seats, navigation systems, or video cameras. Yet, modern cars contain a vast number of small electronic subsystems – from windshield wipers, door locks, power windows, and adaptive lights to seat and mirror adjustment, climate control, and dashboard displays. All these devices are controlled by electronic control units (ECUs).
Early on, this motivated the introduction of a way to diagnose faults in the electronics system, requiring digital data communication between embedded systems and diagnostic tools. Such systems were first designed for use exclusively on the vehicle assembly line and were very specific to not just the manufacturer but also the component being diagnosed. One of the earliest examples is the assembly line diagnostic link (ALDL) system used in the early 1980s for engine control module diagnosis.
The need for a digital link between ECUs and other components was further driven by the increasing complexity of connecting individual electric systems. In the early 1980s this was still easily possible using dedicated wires for each interconnection, or even for each task, but it became very clear that this would not much longer be the case; and rightly so: Today, switching on the left-turn signal involves no fewer than eight individual embedded systems.
7 - Security and privacy
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 302-324
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Summary
With the increasing engagement of the major industry players to bring inter-vehicle communication (IVC) onto the market, the need to secure the communication between vehicles and the infrastructure became an important issue. Apart from satisfying the demand for deploying closed-market systems that offer services only to paying customers, security is also necessary in order to prevent fraud and malicious attacks. Just recently, it has been demonstrated that IVC-related systems are not as secure as necessary: Attackers successfully took over control of car electronics via tire-pressure-measurement-systems or they attacked electronic message boards along a highway. Even spoofed traffic-information transmissions via TMC have been demonstrated. In this chapter, we study possible security solutions for vehicular networks, focusing on their practical relevance. We review not only the generic security primitives but also their applicability and limits. Furthermore, we look into the very critical balance between security and privacy: The more secure a system is made, the more severely the driver's privacy is impacted. Therefore, we also investigate location privacy and outline how the driver's privacy can be increased. In particular, we investigate the use of pseudonyms, time-varying pseudonym pools, and the exchange of pseudonyms.
This chapter is organized as follows.
• Security primitives (Section 7.1) – In this section, we briefly review the general security objectives before investigating the specific security relationships relevant for vehicular networks. The main focus is on introducing the concept of certificates and their use for digitally signing messages. We also investigate the fundamental relationship between security and privacy.
• Securing vehicular networks (Section 7.2) – This is the key section on enabling security in vehicular networks. The key technology proposed is the use of certificates for digitally signing messages such as periodic CAMs. We further investigate how the resulting performance issues can be solved as well as how certificates can be revoked if keys have been compromised. We conclude this section with a brief overview on using context information such as geographic position to increase security.
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References
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 325-347
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Preface
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- By Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp ix-x
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Summary
The intensive use of networked embedded systems is one of the key success factors in the automotive industry, also triggering a massive shortening of innovation cycles. Hundreds of so-called electronic control units (ECUs), connected by kilometers of electrical wiring, operate in today's modern car, enabling a huge variety of new functionalities ranging from safety to comfort applications. All this functionality can be realized only if the ECUs are able to communicate and to cooperate using a real-time enabled communication network in the car.
Today we are at the verge of another leap forward: This in-car network is being extended to not only connect local ECUs but also to connect the whole car to other cars and its environment using inter-vehicle communication (IVC). Relying on existing wireless Internet access using cellular networks of the third (3G) or fourth generation (4G), or novel networking technologies that are being designed specifically for use in the vehicular context such as IEEE WAVE, ETSI ITS-G5, and the IEEE 802.11p protocol, it becomes possible to use spontaneous connections between vehicles to exchange information, promising novel and sometimes futuristic applications.
Using such IVC, safety-relevant information can be exchanged that could not have been obtained using local sensors, enabling a driver to virtually see traffic through large trucks or buildings. This new idea of networked vehicles creates opportunities to not only increase road traffic safety but also improve our driving experience. Traffic jams can be prevented altogether (or at least we would be informed of jams well in advance) – and we might even be able to enable the driver to enjoying fully automated rides in a train-like convoy of cooperating vehicles on the road.
Vehicular networking, the fusion of vehicles' networks to exchange information, is the common basis on which all of these visions build.
Being fascinated with all the opportunities and challenges related to vehicular networking, we have been a part of this research community for close to ten years.
Index
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 348-353
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6 - Performance evaluation
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 229-301
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Summary
The methodology chosen greatly influences the quality of performance evaluation. Field operational tests (FOTs) are being conducted in many areas and provide some very helpful first results. Yet, large-scale experimentation is conceptually complicated or even infeasible – just consider the possible number of parameter configurations that need to be tested. Thus, simulation is in most cases the method of choice for performance studies. This chapter studies how such simulations should be performed in the field of inter-vehicle communication (IVC) and which tools are available to aid researchers. One of the key concerns is the correct and realistic modeling of the vehicles' mobility. Besides that, the “correct” choice of the scenario has a strong influence on the expressiveness, the validity, and the comparability of simulation experiments. This chapter also studies the impact of radio signal propagation models, the influence of the human driver's behavior, and suitable metrics for finally assessing the performance.
This chapter is organized as follows.
• Performance measurements (Section 6.1) – In this section, we discuss strategies and techniques for performance evaluation of vehicular networking applications and protocols in general. In particular, we outline recent measurement campaigns, including the tools used, and give a high-level overview on simulation techniques.
• Simulation tools (Section 6.2) – This section covers typically used tools for simulating vehicular networks. We introduce the necessary network simulation as well as road mobility simulation and summarize integrated frameworks used for more holistic approaches to simulation of vehicular networks.
• Scenarios, models, and metrics (Section 6.3) – We study the scenarios, models, and metrics needed in this section. It makes a huge difference whether the protocols have been studied in the correct environment and using models accurately representing the realistic behavior of wireless communication channels and vehicular networking protocols. We summarize this discussion with an overview on metrics that can (and should) be used for the final performance assessment.
Vehicular Networking
- Christoph Sommer, Falko Dressler
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- Published online:
- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014
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With this essential guide to vehicular networking, you will learn about everything from conceptual approaches and state-of-the-art protocols, to system designs and their evaluation. Covering both in- and inter-vehicle communication, this comprehensive work outlines the foundations of vehicular networking as well as demonstrating its commercial applications, from improved vehicle performance, to entertainment, and traffic information systems. All of this is supported by in-depth case studies and detailed information on proposed protocols and solutions for access technologies and information dissemination, as well as topics on rulemaking, regulations, and standardization. Importantly, for a field which is attracting increasing commercial interest, you will learn about the future trends of this technology, its problems, and solutions to overcome them. Whether you are a student, a communications professional or a researcher, this is an invaluable resource.
5 - Information dissemination
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 136-228
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Summary
The objective of this chapter is to discuss data dissemination in vehicular networks in detail. We concentrate essentially on network-layer and application-layer protocols, which are often discussed and developed as a single protocol above the respective access technologies. The key objective is to achieve information exchange between any two vehicles, from one vehicle to all neighboring ones, from one vehicle to infrastructure components, from infrastructure to one or all neighboring vehicles, and dissemination from a vehicle to all those that are interested in the content.
We start by looking at ad-hoc routing protocols that were suggested in the early days of vehicular networks. Having identified their limitations, we explore alternatives, starting with geographic routing and geocast as communication primitives, and then exploring one of the most promising domains in the scope of vehicular networks: beaconing or one-hop broadcasting. In this framework, this chapter details the basic principles underlying such inter-vehicle communication (IVC) approaches, namely unicast, local broadcast, anycast, and multicast communication principles as used in vehicular networks. We of course investigate the current state of the standardization efforts, primarily focusing on the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standardization towards cooperative awareness messages (CAMs) and decentralized environmental notification messages (DENMs) as well as the ETSI GeoNetworking initiative. Furthermore, we explore options for exploiting available infrastructure such as roadside units (RSUs) or even parked vehicles to provide access to some backbone network or to help spread information among the vehicles. We conclude this chapter with a discussion of delay/disruption-tolerant network (DTN) approaches and the use of concepts known from Internet-based peer-to-peer networks.
This chapter is organized as follows.
• Ad-hoc routing (Section 5.1) – We start by exploring classical mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) routing algorithms in detail, because some basic knowledge of ad-hoc routing is needed in order to understand the more sophisticated vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) routing options. In this section, we also discuss the applicability of MANET routing to VANETs as well as the specific challenges resulting from the underlying mobility pattern and delay constraints for vehicular safety applications.
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3 - Inter-vehicle communication
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 38-105
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Communication between vehicles (and between vehicles and available infrastructure) is the topic of this chapter. Essentially, we give a basic introduction to inter-vehicle communication (IVC) identifying the key concepts in the safety as well as in the non-safety application domains. For this, we derive all the relevant communication concepts and solutions for those applications and, most importantly, identify the requirements such as maximum delays, minimum dissemination range, or minimum data rates. Furthermore, we present an overview on the possible communication paradigms, such as whether information is to be exchanged without the help of any available infrastructure or whether infrastructure elements – roadside units (RSUs), parked vehicles, or even widely deployed cellular networks – can be used for the information exchange.
The scope of this chapter is to introduce IVC as an active research field. The main motivation is to become familiar with the field to a level that helps one to understanding the fundamental concepts and their limitations. All the communication principles outlined will be studied in greater detail in the following chapters.
This chapter is organized as follows.
• Applications (Section 3.1) – In this section, we introduce the field starting with typical applications for IVC. We will show that the scope and character of these applications vary widely, which complicates the development of common and generalized IVC protocols.
• Requirements and components (Section 3.2) – Starting from knowledge about IVC applications, we derive requirements on IVC solutions and study metrics to assess their effectiveness. In a second part, we introduce all the communication entities involved and possible mechanisms for information exchange.
• Concepts for inter-vehicle communication (Section 3.3) – This section can be regarded as the main part of this chapter. We broadly study all the communication principles and protocols that have been considered for IVC. This overview explains why the different protocols have been studied and what their main advantages and disadvantages are.
• Fundamental limits (Section 3.4) – We conclude this chapter by discussing fundamental limits for IVC.
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Abbreviations
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp xi-xviii
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Contents
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp v-viii
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4 - Access technologies
- Christoph Sommer, Universität Paderborn, Germany, Falko Dressler, Universität Paderborn, Germany
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- Vehicular Networking
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- 18 December 2014
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- 04 December 2014, pp 106-135
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Summary
Radio access technologies like WiFi, IEEE 802.11p, and LTE form the basis of any communication stack, and the choice of technology heavily influences application performance. They are the topic of this chapter.
In general, two families of radio access technologies can be differentiated: those based on cellular networks and those based on short-range radio. Traditionally, these two families were conceptually vastly different. Cellular networks relied on central coordination, whereas short-range radio operated in a fully distributed fashion. Cellular networks used licensed spectrum, whereas short-range radio had to make do with unlicensed spectrum. These differentiations are no longer strictly true. Cellular networks are slowly moving towards (some) distributed control, while short-range radio, particularly for inter-vehicle communication (IVC), is profitting from infrastructure support and central services. Further, short-range radio for IVC can now rely on allocated dedicated spectrum. A new trend further blends licensed and unlicensed spectrum into spectrum that has primary users, which can access the spectrum with absolute priority, but one also allows its white spaces to be filled by non-primary users.
We will take a detailed look at the concepts and the underlying principles of representative radio access technologies from both families, always with a focus on their use in vehicular networks.
This chapter is organized as follows.
• Cellular networks (Section 4.1) – We start by following the evolution of the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) family of cellular networks: from GSM, via UMTS, to LTE, with a perspective on future technologies. We will always be considering both halves of a cellular network, that is, the air interface and the radio access network (RAN), as well as the core network.
• Short-range radio technologies (Section 4.2) – We then turn towards a classical short-range radio technology, following the evolution of IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN (WLAN) and its many extensions. We discuss one extension in particular detail: IEEE 802.11p, which extended WLAN for use in vehicular networks. Lastly, we discuss efforts building on WLAN to provide a complete IVC protocol suite.
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